,單擊此處編輯母版標(biāo)題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級(jí),,第三級(jí),,第四級(jí),,第五級(jí),,*,Chapter Two,,,Speech Sounds,As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.,,We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are,phonetics,and,phonology,.,Phonetics,studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.,Articulatory Phonetics,is the study of the production of speech sounds.,,Acoustic Phonetics,is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.,,Perceptual,or,Auditory Phonetics,is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.,Phonology,is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.,,It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’.,,In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its,phonological structure,, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together.,,Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.,1. How speech sounds are made,1.1 Speech organs,The diagram of speech organs,Lips,,Teeth,,Teeth ridge (,al’veolar,),,Hard palate,（硬腭）,,Soft palate (velum),,’Uvula,（小舌）,,Tip of tongue,,Blade of tongue,（舌面）,,Back of tongue,,Vocal cords,（聲帶）,,Pharyn’geal,cavity,（咽腔）,,Nasal cavity,Position of the vocal folds: voiceless,Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture),Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop,1.2 The IPA,In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers’ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods.,,It was changed to its present title of the,International Phonetic Association,(IPA) in 1897.,One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in,phonetic transcription,.,,The idea of establishing a,phonetic alphabet,was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen,奧托,.,耶斯伯森,(1860-1943) in 1886, and,,the first version of the,International Phonetic Alphabet,(the,IPA chart,) was published in August 1888.,Its main principles were that,,there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and,,that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.,,The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.,,These principles continue to be followed today.,The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet,(Revised to 2005),肺部氣流音,非肺部氣流音、連音和其它符號(hào),,,Diacritics: the additional symbols or marks used together with consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.,,,變音符號(hào)（附加符號(hào)）,,變音符號(hào)（附加符號(hào)）是加在音標(biāo)周圍的小記號(hào)，以標(biāo)示此音標(biāo)發(fā)音須作的變化，或作更精確的描述。下標(biāo)的變音附號(hào)（平常置于音標(biāo)或符號(hào)下方的記號(hào)）若要加,在,降部,的音標(biāo)時(shí)，可以改置于字母上方。,,當(dāng),i,加上變音附號(hào)后，上方的點(diǎn)可能會(huì)和附加符號(hào)產(chǎn)生混淆時(shí)，應(yīng)使用不含點(diǎn)的,i,。有些,IPA,符號(hào)也可作為附加符號(hào)，以描述語音細(xì)節(jié)：,t? (,擦音除阻,), b? (,漏氣音,), ?a (,喉音起始,), ? (,置入,schwa),,o?,(,雙元音化,),。,,,suprasegmental,phoneme,,n.,超音段音位（又,prosodeme,, secondary phoneme,）一些分析中，特別是美國(guó)結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)家的分析中，超音段成分被看做是音位時(shí)，叫做超音段音位，它大致同普通音段音位相等．,Bloomfield(1933),早些時(shí)候把它叫做次音位，用主音位指音段音位。,,suprasegmental,,adj. n.,超音段,[,的,],（又,non-segmental,,plurisegmental,）（關(guān)于音系音段）轄域大于單個(gè)音段的，要描寫其語音實(shí)現(xiàn)只能涉及同一語句中的比鄰轄域。最常見的這種成分是重音和聲調(diào)（或音高），不過有時(shí)人們認(rèn)為還有其他的成分。超音段成分基本上是同韻律成分相同的。 這一術(shù)語由美國(guó)結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)家提出，然而始終在廣泛運(yùn)用中。,,繼薩氏和布氏之后二人的學(xué)生派克把音位的概念進(jìn)一步抽象他認(rèn)為在元音、輔音里能區(qū)別意義的是“音段音位”把音長(zhǎng)、重音和音高等稱為“超音段音位,.”,到,60,年代美國(guó)結(jié)構(gòu)學(xué)派的語言學(xué)家在分析英語語音系統(tǒng)時(shí)把元音、輔音、半元音、音渡、重音、調(diào)末的方向都列為音位（稱為“非音質(zhì)音位”或“超音段音位”）,,D.J.,音標(biāo),Daniel Jones Phonetic Symbol,D.J.,音標(biāo)與,K.K.,音標(biāo)對(duì)比,John S Kenyon & Thomas A Knott,2. Consonants and vowels,,Consonants,are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction’.,,By contrast, a,vowel,is produced without such ‘,stricture,’ so that ‘a(chǎn)ir escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’.,,The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the,obstruction of airstream,.,,As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.,2.1 Consonants,,In the production of consonants at least two,articulators,are involved.,,For example, the initial sound in,bad,involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.,,The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors.,The,manner of articulation,refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:,,the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;,,they may narrow the space considerably; or,,they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.,Stop (or Plosive),（,閉塞音或破擦音）,,Oral & Nasal,（,鼻音,）,,Fricative,（,摩擦音,）,,(Median) Approximant,（,近音）,,Lateral (Approximant),（,邊音,）,,Trill,（,顫音,）,,Tap or Flap,（,閃音,）,,Affricate,（,塞擦音,）,The,place of articulation,refers to the point where a consonant is made.,,Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.,,Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:,Bilabial,（,雙唇音,）,,Labiodental,（,唇齒音,）,,Dental,（,齒音,）,,Alveolar,（,齒齦音）,,Postalveolar,（,齒齦后音）,,Retroflex,（,卷舌音,）,,Palatal,（,上顎音,）,,Velar,（,軟鍔音,）,,Uvular,（,小舌音,）,,Pharyngeal,（,喉音）,,Glottal,（,聲門音,）,,,2.2 Vowels,,Cardinal Vowels,, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.,,十九世紀(jì)末，英國(guó)語言學(xué)家,D.,瓊斯（,D.Jones,),用,X,光從口腔左側(cè)拍攝了八個(gè)基本元音的近顎點(diǎn)（舌面離上顎最近點(diǎn)）的舌位圖。確立了八個(gè)基本元音的位置。,Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918),Black: IPA,,Red: English,,八個(gè)基本元音就像八根定點(diǎn)的柱子，撐起了元音的大廈，其它所有的元音都可參照他們的位置找到自己的處所。,,基本元音指基本元音系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的任何一個(gè)元音。由瓊斯提出，用以描寫任何語言中的元音。它們不屬于某一特定語言，而是作為元音可能存在的參照點(diǎn)。,,所有的基本元音都是單元音,,The problematic area is that the initial sound in,hot,gives little turbulence, depending on how forcefully it is said, and in,yet,and,wet,the initial segments are obviously vowels.,,To get out of this problem, the usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories. For this purpose, the term ‘,semi-vowel,’ is often used.,Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality.,,The former are known as,pure,or,monophthong,vowels,and the latter,,vowel glides,.,,If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called,diphthongs,.,,,,A double movement produces a,triphthong,（三元音）,, which is ‘a(chǎn) glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption’.,,They are really diphthongs followed by the,schwa,[?], (,中性原音）,found in English words like,wire,[,wa??,] and,tower,[,ta??,].,,元音音渡：語音能區(qū)分發(fā)音過程中的性質(zhì)恒定的元音和發(fā)音過程中有聽覺上變化的元音之間的區(qū)別。前者為純?cè)艋騿卧?，后者就是元音音渡。如果舌頭只運(yùn)動(dòng)一次，這種音渡叫雙元音，運(yùn)動(dòng)兩次叫三元音。,,Shwa,:,中性元音：據(jù)構(gòu)擬，共同印歐語的元音組成有長(zhǎng)短,a, e, i, o, u,。另外至少還有一個(gè)弱化元音,[?],,這是由長(zhǎng)元音在非重讀音中弱化而成的，音值是個(gè)中性元音。學(xué)界借用希伯來語術(shù)語稱之為,Shwa,。,,2.3 The sounds of English,,Received Pronunciation (RP),,General American (GA),,,English consonants,The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:,,[p] voiceless bilabial stop,,[b] voiced bilabial stop,,[s] voiceless alveolar fricative,,[z] voiced alveolar fricative,English vowels,The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:,,the height of tongue raising (,high,,,mid,,,low,);,,the position of the highest part of the tongue (,front,,,central,,,back,);,,the length or,tenseness,of the vowel (,tense,vs.,lax,or,long,vs.,short,), and,,lip-rounding,(,rounded,vs.,unrounded,).,We can now describe the English vowels in this way:,,[,??,] high front tense unrounded vowel,,[,?,] high back lax rounded vowel,,[,?,] mid central lax unrounded vowel,,[,?,] low back lax rounded vowel,3. From phonetics to phonology,Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.,,For example,,map,,,lamb,.,3.1 Coarticulation,When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process,coarticulation,（協(xié)同發(fā)音）,.,,If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of,lamb,, it is known as,anticipatory,coarticulation,（逆化協(xié)同發(fā)音）,.,,If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is,perseverative,coarticulation,（重復(fù)性協(xié)同發(fā)音）,, as is the case of,map,.,,[p] is,aspirated,in,peak,and,unaspirated,in,speak,.,,This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the,diacritic,,h,, as [p,h,], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].,When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a,broad transcription,.,,The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a,narrow transcription,.,,Both are,phonetic transcriptions,so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].,,3.2 Phonemes,,Phonology,is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.,,Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.,,E.g. [ t ] in tea [ i; ] front vowel,,[ t ] in too [ u; ] back vowel,,Crystal,（,1997,）,: ‘Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not’.,,Minimal pairs,:,Minimal pairs are pairs of words that except for one phonemic difference sound alike. The one phoneme difference can make a significant difference in meaning between the two words. e.g. beat-bear, wet-wit, ten-teen etc.,,Minimal pairs test,,Phonemes,,,Minimal pairs: Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound ( one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning. For example,,,the English words bear and pear are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and their initial phoneme / b / and / p / form a contrast.,,,Minimal pair :a pair of words, as,pin,and,,bin,,or,bet,and,bed,,differing only by one,sound,in the same position in each,,,word,, especially when such a pair is taken,,as evidence for the  existence of a,,phonemic contrast between the  two sounds.,,,E.g. [ b ] and [ p ]: bin / pin,,[ t ] and [ d ]: bet / bed,,,Phonemes:,,the smallest unit of speech that can be used to make one word different from another word, such as the ‘b’ and the ‘p’ in ‘big’ and ‘pig’ .,(,幫助理解）,,Phoneme: The smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning, as the,m,of,mat,and the,b,of,bat,in English.,（幫助理解）,,Phoneme: one of the set of speech sounds in any given language that serve to distinguish one word from another. A phoneme may consist of several phonetically distinct articulations, which are regarded as identical by native speakers, since one articulation may be substituted for another without any change of meaning. Thus /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English because they distinguish such words as,pet,and,bet,,whereas the clear and dark /l/ sounds in,little,are not separate phonemes since they may be transposed without changing meaning.,（理解記憶）,,,The word ‘,phoneme,’ simply refers to a ‘unit of explicit sound contrast’: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.,,By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.,,,音素是人類語言在一次發(fā)音中從音質(zhì)角度切分出來的最小的語音單位。,,,音位是具體語言或方言在一類發(fā)音中從能否區(qū)別詞或語素的角度劃分或歸并出來的最小的語音形式。,,,音位本身沒有意義，也不能直接區(qū)別意義，而是能區(qū)別語素或詞的語音形式，從而區(qū)別意義。,,,音位的歸納及歸納音位應(yīng)遵循的原則,,音位的歸納通常是把一些音放在相同的語音環(huán)境中來進(jìn)行替換比較，看它們能否區(qū)別 意義。 如果能夠區(qū)別意義，這些音就應(yīng)分別歸納為不同的音位；如果不能區(qū)別意義，這些音則應(yīng)該 歸屬同一個(gè)音位。,,以音素為材料，從音質(zhì),(,即音色,),的角度分析歸納出來的音位叫“音質(zhì)音位” 。其中從 輔音中歸納出來的音位叫“輔音音位”，從元音中歸納出來的音位叫 “元音音位”。,,Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.,,In English, the distinction between aspirated [p,h,] and unaspirated [p] is not,phonemic,.,,In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /p,h,/ is phonemic. [ P,A51,] (,爸,),、,[P’,A51,] (,怕,),,,英語中送氣音和不送氣音是在一定條件下使用的，即在重讀音節(jié)中讀送氣音，在,【s 】,和非重讀音節(jié)中讀非送氣音或送氣極弱，因而，英語中送氣音或不送氣音不具有區(qū)別意義的作用，屬于同一音位的不同變體。,,,漢語中送氣音和不送氣音具有區(qū)別意義的作用,,,它們屬于不同的音位。,,,漢語送氣音,p,、,t,、,k,、,c,、,ch,、,q,,漢語非送氣音,b,、,d,、,g,、,z,、,zh,、,j,,By convention,,phonemic transcriptions,are placed between slant lines (/ /) while,phonetic transcriptions,are placed between square brackets ([ ]).,,In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the ‘broad’ transcriptions.,,,phoneme,,phone,,English,,/,不區(qū)分,漢語,/,區(qū)分,,,,/ p /,[ p ],,,,[,p,h,,],,u,naspirated,,,,aspirated,speak [,spi;k,],,,,p,eak [,pi;k,],賓,bin,,,拼,pin,phonetics,phonetician,phone,P,honetic transcription,S,quare mark [ ],phonology,phonologist,phoneme,P,honemic transcription,S,lant lines,,/ /,,關(guān)于音素、音位；,,1,、音素（,phone):,人們?cè)谘哉Z交際過程中所發(fā)出和所能聽到的語音，是語音學(xué)的基本單位。,E.g. top & stop [ t ],,2,、音位（,phoneme):,音位是一種語言或方言中能區(qū)分意義的最小的語言單位。,,,E.g. / h /,和,/ k /,h,ook,c,ook,,[ p ],和,[,,p,h,],p,eak s,p,eak,,,,音素強(qiáng)調(diào)語音差異 音位強(qiáng)調(diào)意義差異,,,音位的特征：,,,1,、音位是能區(qū)別意義的語音單位。,,,2,、音位是最小的語音單位。,,,3,、音位總是屬于某種特定的語言或方言。,,3.3 Allophones,,[p, p,h,] are two different,phones,and are variants of the,phoneme,/p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called,allophones,音位變體）,,of the same phoneme.,,In this case the allophones are said to be in,complementary distribution,,（互補(bǔ)分配）,because they never occur in the same context:,,[p] occurs after [s] while [p,h,] occurs in other places.,/p/,?,[p] / [s] _____,,[p,h,] elsewhere,,/p/ speak speech space speed spell,,[p,h,] pace pad page paid pain paint,,,This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called,allophony,（音位變體現(xiàn)象）,,or,allophonic variation,.,,Velarization,:,clear,l,and,dark,l,,,/,?,/,?,[,?,] / _____ V,,[,?,] / V _____,,,Think about,tell,and,telling,!,Phonetic similarity,: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.,,E.g.,[p, p,h,],,Free variants,and,free variation,,either, neither, direction, interesting, often,,南方方言中的,f,和,h,不分， 也屬于自由變體,,,,,,音位分布：,,互補(bǔ)分布（,complementary distribution),,,相似的音素若是同一音位的音位變體，則它們處于互補(bǔ)分布。,,如：,【 p 】/【 p,h,】 peak / speak,,清晰音,/ l /,和模糊音,/ l /,處于互補(bǔ)分布。,,l,ittle /,,te,ll,,音位對(duì)立,( phonemic contrast ),,,相似的音素若不是同一音位的音位變體，則它們處于音位對(duì)立。,,如：,p,et /,b,et,,,音位變體,( allophone):,同一音位在不同語言環(huán)境下的實(shí)現(xiàn)方式。,,,E.g.,,,音位,/ t /,在,stop,中的實(shí)現(xiàn)方式是,/ t /,,,音位,/ t /,在,top,中的實(shí)現(xiàn)方式是,/,t,h,,/,,,則,/ t /,和,/,t,h,,/,都是音位,/ t /,的音位變體,,,,,關(guān)于音位變體的注意點(diǎn)：,,,1,、音位和音位變體是一般與個(gè)別的關(guān)系。一個(gè)音位中的任何一個(gè)音素都是變體。變體并不是相對(duì)于一個(gè)正體而言的。音位是一個(gè)類，變體是這個(gè)類下的成員。如：清晰邊音,【l】,，模糊邊音,【l】,和清輔音,【l】,都是音位,【l】,的變體。,,,2,、各個(gè)變體中往往要選一個(gè)來代表這個(gè)音位，所選者往往是最常見，受臨近音影響最小的那個(gè)變體。,,,3,、因?yàn)槭翘囟ㄏ到y(tǒng)的成員，不但要看他是什么，還要看他不是什么，如送氣音，不送氣音。因此，不同語言表面上相同的音實(shí)質(zhì)是不同的。,,,語音近似原則：,,屬于一個(gè)音位的各個(gè)變體在語音上是近似的，至少本地人聽起來近似，否則，即使是互補(bǔ)關(guān)系也不能歸并為一個(gè)音位。,,如：世界， 商品， 鮮血，三角,,最小對(duì)立體：,( minimal pair ),,若兩個(gè)詞除了相同位置上的兩個(gè)音之外，其余的音都相同，則它們構(gòu)成最小對(duì)立體。,,如：,pill / bill,,,因素和音位的區(qū)別,,音素是構(gòu)成音節(jié)的最小單位或最小的語音片段。它是從音色的角度劃分出來的。,,音位是一個(gè)語音系統(tǒng)里能夠區(qū)別意義的最小語音單位，是按語音的辨意作用歸拿出的音類。,,成詞語素和不成詞語素就是看能不能獨(dú)立成詞，能的是成詞語素,,音位是一個(gè)具體的語音系統(tǒng)中能夠區(qū)別意義的最小的語音單位。其特點(diǎn)如下,: 1,、音位是屬于一個(gè)具體的語言的,,,如漢語音位不同于英語的音位。沒有超語言的音位,,,這也是音位區(qū)別于音素的根本所在。,,音位和音素是兩個(gè)不同而又有聯(lián)系的概念。音素是從音質(zhì)角度劃分出來的最小語音單位，音質(zhì)不同,,,音素也就不同。而音位則是從區(qū)別詞的語音形式的角度確立的語音單位，這種確立只注意那些與意義的區(qū)別相對(duì)應(yīng)的語音差別，而對(duì)那些與意義的區(qū)別無關(guān)的音質(zhì)上的差別則不加以考慮。音位和音素的關(guān)系則表現(xiàn)為，音位是由一組彼此的差別沒有區(qū)別詞的語音形式作用而音感上又相似的音素概括而成的音類。 音位是抽象的，音素則是具體的。音位的抽象以具體的音素與音素之間的關(guān)系作為基礎(chǔ)。音素之間存在著兩種重要的關(guān)系，一是,",對(duì)立關(guān)系,",，一是,",互補(bǔ)關(guān)系,",。幾個(gè)音質(zhì)不同的音素，只要處于互補(bǔ)關(guān)系，而且發(fā)音相似，就可以把它們看作是同一個(gè)音類的成員，歸并為一個(gè)音位。在具體發(fā)音時(shí)，抽象的音位實(shí)現(xiàn)為具體的音素。 音位總是具體語言或方言的特定語音系統(tǒng)的成員，不存在超語言或超方言的音位。由于存在音位，在不同語言中的相同的音素，在不同的系統(tǒng)中所起的作用不一定相同。比如英語和漢語普通話都有輔音音素,[p],和,[p'],，英語里,[p],和,[p'],的差別不能區(qū)別意義，它們同屬于一個(gè)音位,/p/,；漢語普通話里,[p],和,[p'],的差別能夠區(qū)別意義，因而它們分屬,/p/,和,/p'/,兩個(gè)音位。,,音位是具體語言里有區(qū)別詞的語音作用形式的最小語音類型單位,;,音素是語言中音義結(jié)合的最小單位,,,再不能分解出更小的意義單位,;,二者關(guān)系,:,音素是從音質(zhì)角度劃分出來的最小語音單位,,,音質(zhì)不同音素就不同,.,音位是從區(qū)別詞的語音形式的角度確立的語言類型單位,.,音位在音素的基礎(chǔ)上形成,,,是某種語言借助于音素來區(qū)別的詞的語音形式,,,近而區(qū)別詞義的工具,.,音素著眼于自然屬性,,,音位著眼于社會(huì)屬性,.,音節(jié)是音位和音位組合起來的最小結(jié)構(gòu)單位,.,一個(gè)音節(jié)可以由一個(gè)音位構(gòu)成,,,也可以由兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的音位構(gòu)成,.,音位是最小的能夠辨別意義的語音單位。例如：,boy,和,toy,語音上是通過,[b],和,[t],來顯示區(qū)別的，,[b],和,[t],起了辨別意義的作用，又因?yàn)?[b],和,[t],都已經(jīng)是最小的無法繼續(xù)切分下去的語音，所以,[b],和,[t],是兩個(gè)因?yàn)?。又譬?kill,和,skill,中的,k,，實(shí)際發(fā)音稍有不同（不妨自己試試），國(guó)際音標(biāo)可以分別記做,[k'],和,[k],（送氣的,k,和不送氣的,k,）,,[k],總是出現(xiàn)在,[s],之后而,[k'],不可能出現(xiàn)在,[s],之后，兩者出現(xiàn)的環(huán)境是對(duì)立的，因此，是同一音位的不同變體。,,,4. Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features,,4.1 Assimilation,Nasalization,（鼻音化）,,,dentalization,（齒齦化）,, and,velarization,（腭音化）,,are all instances of,assimilation,, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.,,If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it,regressive assimilation,（逆同化）,.,,The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as,progressive assimilation,（順同化）,.,English Fricative Devoicing,,The first column of symbols show the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speed; the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal connected speech.,,Devoicing: a process by which voiced sounds become voiceless.,,,濁音化規(guī)則：在,/s/,音后頭的,/,p,t,k,/,和作為音節(jié)開頭的,/,p,t,k,/,語音特點(diǎn)是不同的，這種語音變化稱作“濁化”。 （省力原則，有爭(zhēng)議）,,,stand speak sky,,清音化規(guī)則：,,/v/,? [f] /z/ ? [s] etc.,,voiced fricative ? voiceless / ____ voiceless,,,Nasalization rule:,,[-nasal] ? [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal],bean green,,Dentalization rule:,,[-dental],? [dental] / ____ [dental],tenth ninth,,Velarization rule:,,[-velar],? [+velar] / ____ [+velar],sink mink,4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition,,a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house,,an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old lady,,,Epenthesis,(Insertion) Rule:,,何為增音？,,你快看??！,,兒童們正跑得歡兒呢。,,,Plurals in English,a. The [,?,] appears after voiceless sounds.,,b. The [,?,] appears after voiced sounds.,,c. The [,??,] appears after sibilants.,,,/,?,/,?,[,?,] / [–voice, C] _____ (Devoicing),,?,,?,[,?,] / [+sibilant] _____ [,?,] (Epenthesis),Rule ordering,,The Elsewhere Condition,,The more specific rule applies first.,,4.3 Distinctive features,,The idea of,Distinctive Features,was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds.,,Since then several versions have been suggested,.,Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced].,,The feature [consonantal] can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [–consonantal].,,[sonorant] distinguishes between what we call,obstruents,,閉塞音,(stops, fricatives and affricates) and,sonorants,,響音,,(all other consonants and vowels), with,obstruents,being [–sonorant] and others [+sonorant].,,[nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively.,These are known as,binary,,features,because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without.,,Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by ‘ + ’ and ‘ – ’ so voiced obstruents are marked [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [–voiced].,,[ + ] the feature is present,,[ – ] the feature is not present,,,The place features are not binary features – they are divided up into four values:,,[PLACE: Labial],唇音,,[PLACE: Coronal],舌前音,,[PLACE: Dorsal],舌背音,,[PLACE: Radical],腭音,,They are often written in shorthand forms as,,[,Labial]p,,[,Coronal]p,,[,Dorsal]p,,[,Radical]p,何為近音？,近音一般被視為輔音，因?yàn)樗鼈儽葘?duì)應(yīng)的元音較短促，口形亦沒有元音那么明顯。,硬顎,近音與,前元音,對(duì)應(yīng)；,軟顎,近音與,后元音,對(duì)應(yīng)；,圓唇,的近音則對(duì)應(yīng),圓唇元音,。,,近音（前稱無擦通音）在,語音學(xué),中是指一類介乎,元